Antibodies are immunological proteins that each binds a specific antigen. In most mammals, including humans and mice, antibodies are constructed from paired heavy and light polypeptide chains. Each chain is made up of individual immunoglobulin (Ig) domains, and thus the generic term immunoglobulin is used for such proteins. Each chain is made up of two distinct regions, referred to as the variable and constant regions. The light and heavy chain variable regions show significant sequence diversity between antibodies, and are responsible for binding the target antigen. The constant regions show less sequence diversity, and are responsible for binding a number of natural proteins to elicit important biochemical events. In humans there are five different classes of antibodies including IgA (which includes subclasses IgA1 and IgA2), IgD, IgE, IgG (which includes subclasses IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4), and IgM. The distinguishing feature between these antibody classes is their constant regions, although subtler differences may exist in the V region. IgG antibodies are tetrameric proteins composed of two heavy chains and two light chains. The IgG heavy chain is composed of four immunoglobulin domains linked from N- to C-terminus in the order VH—CH1—CH2—CH3, referring to the heavy chain variable domain, heavy chain constant domain 1, heavy chain constant domain 2, and heavy chain constant domain 3 respectively (also referred to as VH—Cγ1-Cγ2-Cγ3, referring to the heavy chain variable domain, constant gamma 1 domain, constant gamma 2 domain, and constant gamma 3 domain respectively). The IgG light chain is composed of two immunoglobulin domains linked from N- to C-terminus in the order VL-CL, referring to the light chain variable domain and the light chain constant domain respectively.
In IgG, a site on Fc between the Cγ2 and Cγ3 domains mediates interaction with the neonatal receptor FcRn. Binding to FcRn recycles endocytosed antibody from the endosome back to the bloodstream (Raghavan et al., 1996, Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 12:181-220; Ghetie et al., 2000, Annu Rev Immunol 18:739-766, both entirely incorporated by reference). This process, coupled with preclusion of kidney filtration due to the large size of the full-length molecule, results in favorable antibody serum half-lives ranging from one to three weeks. Binding of Fc to FcRn also plays a key role in antibody transport. The binding site on Fc for FcRn is also the site at which the bacterial proteins A and G bind. The tight binding by these proteins is typically exploited as a means to purify antibodies by employing protein A or protein G affinity chromatography during protein purification. Thus the fidelity of this region on Fc is important for both the clinical properties of antibodies and their purification. Available structures of the rat Fc/FcRn complex (Burmeister et al., 1994, Nature, 372:379-383; Martin et al., 2001, Mol Cell 7:867-877, both entirely incorporated by reference), and of the complexes of Fc with proteins A and G (Deisenhofer, 1981, Biochemistry 20:2361-2370; Sauer-Eriksson et al., 1995, Structure 3:265-278; Tashiro et al., 1995, Curr Opin Struct Biol 5:471-481, all entirely incorporated by reference), provide insight into the interaction of Fc with these proteins. The FcRn receptor is also responsible for the transfer of IgG to the neonatal gut and to the lumen of the intestinal epithelia in adults (Ghetie and Ward, Annu. Rev. Immunol., 2000, 18:739-766; Yoshida et al., Immunity, 2004, 20(6):769-783, both entirely incorporated by reference).
Studies of rat and human Fc domains have demonstrated the importance of some Fc residues to the binding of FcRn. The rat and human sequences have about 64% sequence identity in the Fc regions (residues 237-443 in the numbering of EU index). See FIGS. 3, 4, and 5 for the rat/human alignments of Fc, FcRn heavy chain, and FcRn light chain (beta-2-microglobulin). A model of the human Fc/FcRn complex has been built from the existing structure of the rat Fc/FcRn complex (Martin et al., 2001, Mol Cell 7:867-877, entirely incorporated by reference). The rat and human sequences share some residues that are critical for FcRn binding, such as H310 and H435 (Medesan et al., 1997 J. Immunol. 158(5):221-7; Shields et al., 2001, J. Biol. Chem. 276(9):6591-6604, both entirely incorporated by reference). In many positions, however, the human and rat proteins have different amino acids, giving the residues in the human sequence different environments, and possibly a different identities, than in the rat sequence. This variability limits the ability to transfer characteristics from one homolog to the other homolog.
In the murine Fc, random mutation and phage display selection at the sites, T252, T254, and T256 lead to a triple mutant, T252L/T254S/T256F, that has a 3.5-fold increase in FcRn affinity and a 1.5-fold increase in serum half-life (Ghetie et al., 1997, Nat. Biotech. 15(7): 637-640, entirely incorporated by reference). Disruption of the Fc/FcRn interaction by mutations at positions 253, 310 and 435 also lead to decreased in vivo half-life (Medesan et al J. Immunol. 1997 158(5):2211-7, entirely incorporated by reference).
Mutational studies in human Fcγ have been done on some of the residues that are important for binding to FcRn and have demonstrated an increased serum half-life. In human Fcγ1, Hinton et al. mutated three residues individually to the other 19 common amino acids. Hinton et al., found that some point mutants a double mutant increased the FcRn binding affinity (Hinton et al., 2004, J. Biol. Chem. 279(8): 6213-6216; Hinton et al. Journal of Immunology 2006, 176:346-356, both entirely incorporated by reference). Two mutations had increased half-lives in monkeys. Shields et al. mutated residues, almost exclusively to Ala, and studied their binding to FcRn and the FcγR's (Shields et al., 2001, J. Biol. Chem., 276(9):6591-6604, entirely incorporated by reference).
Dall'Acqua et al. used phage display to select for Fc mutations that bound FcRn with increased affinity (Dall'Acqua et al. 2002, J. Immunol. 169:5171-5180, entirely incorporated by reference). The DNA sequences selected for were primarily double and triple mutants. The reference expressed the proteins encoded by many of their selected sequences and found some that bound to FcRn more tightly than the wild-type Fc.
The administration of antibodies and Fc fusion proteins as therapeutics requires injections with a prescribed frequency relating to the clearance and half-life characteristics of the protein. Longer in vivo half-lives allow more seldom injections or lower dosing, which is clearly advantageous. Although the past mutations in the Fc domain have lead to some proteins with increased FcRn binding affinity and in vivo half-lives, these mutations have not identified the optimal mutations and enhanced in vivo half-life.
One feature of the Fc region is the conserved N-linked glycosylation that occurs at N297. This carbohydrate, or oligosaccharide as it is sometimes called, plays a critical structural and functional role for the antibody, and is one of the principle reasons that antibodies must be produced using mammalian expression systems. Umaña et al., 1999, Nat Biotechnol 17:176-180; Davies et al., 2001, Biotechnol Bioeng 74:288-294; Mimura et al., 2001, J Biol Chem 276:45539-45547.; Radaev et al., 2001, J Biol Chem 276:16478-16483; Shields et al., 2001, J Biol Chem 276:6591-6604; Shields et al., 2002, J Biol Chem 277:26733-26740; Simmons et al., 2002, J Immunol Methods 263:133-147; Radaev et al., 2001, J Biol Chem 276:16469-16477; and Krapp et al., 2003, J Mol Biol 325:979-989, all entirely incorporated by reference).
Antibodies have been developed for therapeutic use. Representative publications related to such therapies include Chamow et al., 1996, Trends Biotechnol 14:52-60; Ashkenazi et al., 1997, Curr Opin Immunol 9:195-200, Cragg et al., 1999, Curr Opin Immunol 11:541-547; Glennie et al., 2000, Immunol Today 21:403-410, McLaughlin et al., 1998, J Clin Oncol 16:2825-2833, and Cobleigh et al., 1999, J Clin Oncol 17:2639-2648, all entirely incorporated by reference. Currently for anticancer therapy, any small improvement in mortality rate defines success. Certain IgG variants disclosed herein enhance the capacity of antibodies to limit further growth or destroy at least partially, targeted cancer cells.
Anti-tumor potency of antibodies is via enhancement of their ability to mediate cytotoxic effector functions such as ADCC, ADCP, and CDC. Examples include Clynes et al., 1998, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:652-656; Clynes et al., 2000, Nat Med 6:443-446 and Cartron et al., 2002, Blood 99:754-758, both entirely incorporated by reference.
Human IgG1 is the most commonly used antibody for therapeutic purposes, and the majority of engineering studies have been constructed in this context. The different isotypes of the IgG class however, including IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4, have unique physical, biological, and clinical properties. There is a need in the art to design improved IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4 variants. There is a further need to design such variants to improve binding to FcRn and/or increase in vivo half-life as compared to native IgG polypeptides. Additionally, there is a need to combine variants with improved pharmacokinetic properties with variants comprising modifications to improve efficacy through altered FcgammaR binding. The present application meets these and other needs.